Institute of Central Europe/Yearbook 22 (2024)/Issue 1
Yearbook 22 (2024)
Yearbook 21 (2023)
Yearbook 20 (2022)
Yearbook 19 (2021)
Yearbook 18 (2020)
Yearbook 17 (2019)
Yearbook 16 (2018)
Yearbook 15 (2017)
Yearbook 14 (2016)
Yearbook 13 (2015)
Yearbook 12 (2014)
Yearbook 11 (2013)
Yearbook 10 (2012)
Yearbook 9 (2011)
Yearbook 8 (2010)
Yearbook 7 (2009)
Yearbook 6 (2008)
Yearbook 5 (2007)
Yearbook 4 (2006)
Yearbook 3 (2005)
Yearbook 2 (2004)
Yearbook 1 (2003)

The Security and Resilience of Central European States in the 21st Century

Issue editor:

ISSN: 1732-1395

e-ISSN: 2719-2911

Publisher: Instytut Europy Środkowej

Edition: Lublin 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1

Issue 1

Articles

Article

Russia’s geopolitical ambitions and the shadow of genocide in Ukraine

Tomasz Stępniewski
Views count: 31
This concise paper examines Russia’s aggression towards Ukraine and its implications for Western democracies. Divided into four sections – The Importance of Ukraine for the International Position of the Russian Federation, The Context of Russia’s Relations with the European Union, The Russian Federation’s Revisionism in the International Arena, and Genocide as an Element of Russia’s Imperial Policy – the analysis highlights the ongoing full-scale war between Russia and Ukraine, which has escalated in the past two years as part of a decade of Kremlin-driven aggression. This conflict reflects Vladimir Putin’s ambition to restore Russian imperial influence, focusing on regaining control over its periphery in Eastern Europe through military intervention. The paper argues that Russia’s actions threaten not only Ukraine but also European stability and democracy. Integrating Ukraine into the European Union is identified as essential for enhancing regional security and countering Russian expansionism. By addressing Russia’s imperialistic goals and emphasising the need to support Ukraine, this paper calls for a unified Western response to safeguard a secure and democratic Europe.
T. Stępniewski, Russia’s geopolitical ambitions and the shadow of genocide in Ukraine, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 7-15, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.1
  1. Ash T. et al., How to End Russia’s War on Ukraine: Safeguarding Europe’s Future, and the Dangers of a False Peace, London 2023, DOI: 10.55317/9781784135782.
  2. Bernsand N., Törnquist-Plewa B. (eds.), Cultural and political imaginaries in Putin’s Russia, Leiden–Boston 2019.
  3. Everts S., Navigate a power political world, The European Union Institute for Security Studies, 2024, https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/navigating-power-political-world [28.08.2024].
  4. Frye T., Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin’s Russia, Princeton 2021.
  5. Götz E., Staun J., Why Russia attacked Ukraine: Strategic culture and radicalized narratives, “Contemporary Security Policy” 2022, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 482–497.
  6. Jankowski D.P., Stępniewski T. (eds.), The 2024 NATO Summit: Priorities for Transatlantic Security, IEŚ Policy Papers, no. 1, Lublin 2024.
  7. Kolstø P., Blakkisrud H. (eds.), Russia Before and After Crimea: Nationalism and Identity, 2010–17, Edinburgh 2018.
  8. Lachowski T., Stępniewski T., Russia’s War on Ukraine: Geopolitics, International Law, and Genocide, Prace IEŚ, no. 10, Lublin 2023.
  9. Polyakova A. et al., A New Vision for the Transatlantic Alliance: The Future of European Security, the United States, and the World Order after Russia’s War in Ukraine, 30 November 2023, https://cepa.org/comprehensive-reports/a-new-vision-for-the-transatlantic-alliance-the-future-of-european-security-the-united-states-and-the-world-order-after-russias-war-in-ukraine/ [23.07.2024].
  10. Rotfeld A.D., Porządek międzynarodowy. Parametry zmiany, “Sprawy Międzynarodowe” 2014, vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 31–54.
  11. Sakwa R., Frontline Ukraine. Crisis in the Borderlands, London–New York 2015.
  12. Tsygankov A.P., Russia’s Foreign Policy. Change and Continuity in National Identity, Lanham 2010.
Article

NATO’s actions on the impact of climate change on security

Ewelina Kochanek | Katarzyna Pietrzyk-Wiszowaty
Views count: 42
Incorporating the threat of climate change into the security architecture redefines the role of the military and broadens its remit to include responsibilities related to ensuring climate security. In many countries, the military’s involvement in the fight against climate change is seen as essential. The aim of this research is to present the activities of the army in the face of climate change and their impact on the security of NATO countries, as the military’s energy transition is currently one of the key challenges for allied armies. Four diagnostic features were included in the study: adaptation to new environmental conditions, sustainability and zero-carbon, knowledge development and training activities, and partnership cooperation. The diversity of climate strategies in selected allied countries was examined through a comparative analysis and critique of strategic documents on climate change issues and defence energy transition (e.g. army climate strategies and civilian climate strategies). The study will outline the role that the military is slowly beginning to play in the energy transition process. The results may contribute to the discussion on energy transition in NATO armies, as this process is still highly controversial, with not all defence professionals agreeing on the army becoming eco-friendly, and contribute to the wider debate on low-carbon military operations.
E. Kochanek, K. Pietrzyk-Wiszowaty, NATO’s actions on the impact of climate change on security, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 17-43, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.2
  1. Barberini P., NATO Green Defence: From the 2014 Green Defence Framework to the 2021 Climate Change and Security Action Plan, [in:] G. Iacovino, M. Wigell (eds.), Innovative Technologies and Renewed Policies for Achieving a Greener Defence, Springer Dordrecht, 2022, https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-024-2186-6_2.
  2. Birnbaum M., Root T., S. Army unveils climate strategy as military prepares for climate change, “The Washington Post” 2022, no. 2, https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2022/02/10/army-military-green-climate-strategy/.
  3. Breton , Dérèglements climatiques: Quelles conséquences sur les engagements opérationnels?, [in:] N. Regaud, A. Bastien, F. Gemenne, La guerre chaude. Enjeux stratégiques du changement climatique, Paris 2022, pp. 35–49, https://doi.org/10.3917/scpo.regau.2022.01.0035.
  4. Briggs Ch.M., Climate security, risk assessment and military planning, “International Affairs” 2012, vol. 88, no. 5, pp. 1049–1064, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01118.x.
  5. Buhaug H. et al., Climate-driven risks to peace over the 21st century, “Climate Risk Management” 2023, no. 39, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2022.10047.
  6. Chang S.M., Chen B., Song Y., Militarization, renewable energy utilization, and ecological footprints: Evidence from RCEP economies, “Journal of Cleaner Production” 2023, no. 391.
  7. Climate Change Act 2008, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2008/27/contents.
  8. Conger J., Femia F., Werrell C. (eds.), Climate Security Plan for America, A Presidential Plan for Combating the Security Risks of Climate Change, Washington 2019.
  9. Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, Industrial Strategy: Building a Britain Fit for the Future, London 2017, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/industrial-strategy-building-a-britain-fit-for-the-future.
  10. Department of the Army, Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Installations, Energy and Environment, United States Army Climate Strategy, Washington 2022.
  11. Depledge D., Low-carbon warfare: climate change, net zero and military operations, “International Affairs” 2023, vol. 99, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad001.
  12. Direction Générale de L’Armement, Focus véhicules blindés GRIFFON et Jaguar, Paris 2022, https://www.defense.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/dga/022_dossier_Griffon_Jaguar.pdf
  13. Goodman, Kertysova K., NATO: An unexpected driver of climate action?, NATO Review, https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2022/02/01/nato-an-unexpected-driver-of-climate-action/index.html.
  14. Haliżak, Czaputowicz J. (eds.), Theory of realism in the science of international relations: assumptions and research applications, Warsaw 2014.
  15. Her Majesty Treasury, Build Back Better: our plan for growth, United Kingdom 2021, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/build-back-better-our-plan-for-growth.
  16. Jankowski D.P., NATO: climate change and security, “International Analysis” 2022, vol. 1, no. 3.
  17. Jayaram D., Brisbois M.C., Aiding or undermining? The military as an emergent actor in global climate governance, “Earth System Governance” 2021, vol. 1, no. 9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2021.100107.
  18. Khan A. et al., Geopolitical risk, economic uncertainty, and militarization: Significant agents of energy consumption and environmental quality, “Environmental Impact Assessment Review” 2023, no. 102.
  19. Kochanek E., Wielowymiarowość interesów energetycznych w dobie transformacji systemowej, Warsaw 2021.
  20. Koubi V., Climate Change and Conflict, “Annual Review of Political Science” 2019, no. 22, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-070830.
  21. Le Ministère de la Transition écologique et de la Cohésion des territoires, Stratégie Nationale Bas-Carbone, 2020, https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/2020-03 25_MTES_SNBC2.pdf.
  22. Le Ministère des Armées, Climate & Defence Strategy, 2022, https://www.defense.gouv.fr/ministere/politique-defense/strategie-climat-defense.
  23. Lippert T.H., NATO, Climate Change, and International Security: A Risk Governance Approach, Chicago 2019.
  24. Lorenz, NATO’s new strategy – how to restore the priority of collective defence, “PISM Policy Paper” 2021, vol. 192, no. 6, https://pism.pl/publikacje/Nowa_strategia_NATO__jak_przywrocic_priorytet_kolektywnej_obronie.
  25. MachJ. et al., Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict, “Nature” 2019, no. 571, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1300-6.
  26. Machi V., French military eyes tech solutions to deal with climate change, DefenseNews.com, June 2022, https://www.defensenews.com/global/europe/2022/06/10/french-military-eyes-tech-solutions-to-deal-with-climate-change/.
  27. Ministry of Defence and The Rt Hon Jeremy Quin MP, Army’s Solar Farms support commitment to Sustainability, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/armys-solar-farms-support-commitment-to-sustainability.
  28. Ministry of Defence, Climate Change and Sustainability Strategic Approach, United Kingdom 2021, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/605ddbbe8fa8f5047d3a851e/20210326_Climate_Change_Sust_Strategy_v1.pdf.
  29. Mlynarski T., French energy policy and security, “TEKA of Political Science and International Relations” 2014, no. 9, http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/teka.2014.0.9.51.
  30. National Intelligence Estimate, Climate Change and International Responses Increasing Challenges to US National Security Through 2040, 2021, https://www.dni.gov/files/ODNI/documents/assessments/NIE_Climate_Change_and_National_Security.pdf.
  31. NATO Adopts Climate Change Actions for 2030, https://sdg.iisd.org/news/nato-adopts-climate-change-actions-for-2030/.
  32. NATO steps up work on climate change and security, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_217212.htm.
  33. NATO, NATO 2022 Strategic Concept, Spain 2022, https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2022/6/pdf/290622-strategic-concept.pdf.
  34. NATO, NATO Climate Change and Security Impact Assessment. The Secretary General’s Report, Second Edition, Brussels 2023.
  35. NATO, The Secretary General’s Annual Report 2022, Belgium 2023.
  36. Pacte vert et paquet climat: l’UE vise la neutralité climatique dès 2050, https://www.vie-publique.fr/eclairage/272297-pacte-vert-et-paquet-climat-lue-vise-la-neutralite-carbone-des-2050.
  37. Parkinson S., Cottrell L., Estimating the Military’s Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions, “Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR) and the Conflict and Environment Observatory”, November 2022.
  38. Pata Ugur K. et al., Militarization of NATO countries sparks climate change? Investigating the moderating role of technological progress and financial development, “Journal of Cleaner Production” 2023, no. 409.
  39. Regulation European Union 2021/1119 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 establishing a framework for achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulations (EC) No 401/2009 and (EU) 2018/1999 (European climate law), OJ L 243, pp. 1–17, https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/eur204009.pdf.
  40. Rico G., NATO and Climate Change: A Climatized Perspective on Security. Report 2022, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Cambridge 2022,
    https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/Belfer%20Nato_Climate%20Change_VF_1.pdf.
  41. Ruszel M., Mlynarski T., Szurlej A., Energy Policy Transition – The Perspective of Different States, Rzeszów 2017.
  42. Shea, NATO and Climate Change: Better Late Than Never, “Policy Brief” 2022, no. 3, https://www.gmfus.org/news/nato-and-climate-change-better-late-never. [15.11.2023].
  43. Ślusarczyk J., Environmental protection in NATO policy, “Scientific Journal of the Military University of Land Forces” 2023, vol. 55, no. 2(208).
  44. The Center for Naval Analyses, National Security And The Threat Of Climate Change, Alexandria (CNA) 2007.
  45. Vogler A., Barking up the tree wrongly? How national security strategies frame climate and other environmental change as security issues, “Political Geography” 2023, no. 105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2023.102893.

Work begins on the first Solar Carport at Army Headquarters, https://www.army.mod.uk/news-and-events/news/2021/08/the-first-solar-carport-at-army-headquarters/.

Article

Cyber deterrence policies of the Baltic states in the years 2016–2023

Marek Górka
Views count: 44
Since spring 2014, political decision-makers and analysts have been engaged in a lively debate on the geopolitical confrontation between Russia and its neighbours. Following the Russian aggression against Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania quickly became the focus of international attention. The article examines the evolution of the cybersecurity environment within the context of cyber deterrence policy. The main objective of the work is to identify the strategies adopted by small states when their security assurances are challenged by a powerful neighbour. An analysis of documents and cybersecurity concepts can serve as an explanation of the deterrence policies of the Baltic states.
M. Górka, Cyber deterrence policies of the Baltic states in the years 2016–2023, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 45-66, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.3
  1. Andžāns M., Veebel V., Deterrence Dilemma in Latvia and Estonia: Finding the Balance Between External Military Solidarity and Territorial Defence, “Journal on Baltic Security” 2017, vol. 3, no. 2.
  2. Archer C., Bailes A., Wivel A., States and International Security. Europe and Beyond, London 2014.
  3. Baldacchino G., Wivel A. (eds.), Handbook on the Politics of Small States, Northhampton 2020.
  4. Browning C.S., Joenniemi P., Contending discourses of marginality: The case of Kaliningrad, “Geopolitics” 2004, vol. 9, no. 3.
  5. Carvalho B. de, Neumann I.B. (eds.), Small States and Status Seeking: Norway’s Quest for International Standing, London 2015.
  6. Clinton L., Cyber Security Social Contract, [in:] S. Jasper (ed.), Conflict and Cooperation in the Global Commons: A Comprehensive Approach for International Security, Washington 2012.
  7. Crandall M., Varov I., Developing Status as a Small State: Estonia’s Foreign Aid Strategy’, “East European Politics” 2016, vol. 32, no. 4.
  8. Cybersecurity Strategy Republic of Estonia 2019–2022, https://www.mkm.ee/en/e-state-and-connectivity/cyber-security/ensuring-states-cyber-security [14.01.2024].
  9. Elman M., The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard, “British Journal of Political Science” 1995, vol. 25, no. 2.
  10. Finnemore M., Sikkink K., International Norm Dynamics and Political Change, “International Organization” 1998, vol. 52, no. 4.
  11. Fischerkeller M.P., Harknett R.J., Deterrence Is Not a Credible Strategy for Cyberspace, “Orbis” 2017, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 381–393.
  12. Glaser C.L., Realism, [in:] A. Collins (ed.), Contemporary Security Studies, New York 2010.
  13. Goetschel L., Neutrals as brokers of peacebuilding ideas?, “Cooperation & Conflict” 2011, vol. 46, no. 3.
  14. Goodman W., Cyber Deterrence: Tougher in Theory than in Practice?, “Strategic Studies Quarterly” 2010, vol. 4, no. 3.
  15. Hey J., Small States in World Politics: Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior, London 2003.
  16. Hlatky Von S., Introduction: American Alliances and extended deterrence, [in:] idem, A. Wenger (eds.), The future of extended deterrence: The United States, NATO, and Beyond, Washington 2015.
  17. Iasiello E., Is Cyber Deterrence an Illusory Course of Action?, “Journal of Strategic Security” 2014, vol. 7, no. 1.
  18. International Security and Estonia 2016–2023, https://www.valisluureamet.ee/assessment.html [12.02.2024].
  19. Jakobsen P.V., Ringsmore J., Saxi H.L., Prestige-seeking Small States: Danish and Norwegian Military Contributions to US-led Operations, “European Journal of International Security” 2018, vol. 3, no. 2.
  20. Jakobsen P.V., Ringsmose J., Saxi H.L., Prestige-seeking small states: Danish and Norwegian military contributions to US-led operations, “European Journal of International Security” 2018, vol. 3, no. 2.
  21. Jasper S., Deterring Malicious Behavior in Cyberspace, “Strategic Studies Quarterly” 2015, http://www.au.af.mil/au/ssq/digital/pdf/Spring_2015/jasper.pdf [14.01.2024].
  22. Kaljulaid K., On Estonian independence day in Tallinn 2017, https://president.ee/en/official-duties/speeches/14740-president-of-the-republic-at-the-estoniatheatre-and-concert-hall-on-24-february-2017 [12.01.2024].
  23. King A., Gallagher M., United States of America Cyberspace Solarium Commission Report, Washington 2020.
  24. Kuczyńska-Zonik A., Sierzputowska K., The Baltic States in the Face of Russian Aggression in Ukraine, [in:] A. Kasińska-Metryka, K. Pałka-Suchojad (eds.), The Russia-Ukraine War of 2022. Faces of Modern Conflict, London 2023.
  25. Kuczyńska-Zonik A., Sierzputowska K., Wpływy Rosji i Chin w państwach bałtyckich, “Prace Instytutu Europy Środkowej” 2022, vol. 8.
  26. Kuczyńska-Zonik A., The Securitization of National Minorities in the Baltic States, “Baltic Journal of Law & Politics” 2017, vol. 10, no. 2.
  27. Kühn M., Peripheralization: Theoretical concepts explaining socio-spatial inequalities, “European Planning Studies” 2015, vol. 23, no. 2.
  28. Latvia: Russia’s playground for business, politics – and crime, “The Guardian”, 23 January 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/23/latvia-russian-playground [24.02.2024].
  29. Latvian Security Police. Annual Report for 2016–2023, https://vdd.gov.lv/en/useful/annual-reports [12.02.2024].
  30. Legvold R., Return to cold war, Malden 2016.
  31. Levy J.S., Balances and balancing: concepts, proportions, and research design, [in:] J.A. Vasquez, C. Elman (eds.), Realism and the balance of power: A New debate, Elman Prentice-Hall, 2003.
  32. Maliukevicius N., Russia’s information policy in Lithuania: the spread of soft power or information politics?, “Baltic Security & Defence Review” 2007, vol. 9.
  33. Melander M., Mouritzen H., Learning to Assert Themselves: Small States in Asymmetrical Dyads – Two Scandinavian Dogs Barking at the Russian Bear, “Cooperation and Conflict” 2016, vol. 51, no. 4.
  34. Muižnieks N., Russian foreign policy towards “Compatriots” in Latvia, [in:] idem (ed.), Latvian-Russian relations: domestic and international dimensions, Riga 2006.
  35. National Cyber Security Strategy 2018, https://kam.lt/en/cyber-security/ [15.01.2024].
  36. National Threat Assessment 2016–2023, https://www.vsd.lt/en/threats/threats-national-security-lithuania/ [22.02.2024].
  37. Nye J.S., Deterrence and Dissuasion in Cyberspace, “International Security” 2016, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 44–71.
  38. Osawa J., The Escalation of State Sponsored Cyberattack and National Cyber Security Affairs: Is Strategic Cyber Deterrence the Key to Solving the Problem?, “Asia-Pacific Review” 2017, vol. 24, no. 2.
  39. Paulauskas K., On deterrence, “NATO Review Magazine” 2016, http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2016/Also-in-2016/nato-deterrence-defencealliance/EN/index.htm [10.01.2024].
  40. Pedersen R.B., Bandwagon for Status: Changing Patterns in the Nordic States Status-Seeking Strategies?, “International Peacekeeping” 2018, vol. 25, no. 2.
  41. Robst J., Polachek S., Chang Y., Geographic proximity, trade and international conflict/ cooperation, Bonn 2006, https://docs.iza.org/dp1988.pdf [10.01.2024].
  42. Taddeo M., The Limits of Deterrence Theory in Cyberspace, “Philosophy & Technology” 2018, vol. 31, no. 3.
  43. Takacs D., Ukraine’s Deterrence Failure: Lessons for the Baltic States, “Journal on Baltic Security” 2017, vol. 3, no. 1.
  44. The Cybersecurity Strategy of Latvia 2023–2026, https://www.mod.gov.lv/en/nozares-politika/cybersecurity [16.01.2024].
  45. The Military Balance 2016–2023, https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance [24.02.2024].
  46. Wivel A., Oest K.J.N., Security, profit or shadow of the past? Explaining the security strategies of microstates, “Cambridge Review of International Affairs” 2010, vol. 23, no. 3.
  47. Zagare F.C., Deterrence theory, Oxford 2013.
  48. Zdanavičius L., Statkus N., Strengthening Resilience of Lithuania in an Era of Great Power Competition: The Case for Total Defence, “Journal on Baltic Security” 2020, vol. 6, no. 2.
Article

The long shadow of the Great Wall. Trade dependencies of V4’s countries on Chin

Bartosz Michalski
Views count: 44
This paper delves into the topic of trade interdependencies, which represent a crucial aspect of economic security policy. The increasing influence of China, coupled with its aspirations for global dominance, in addition to the challenge posed to the established liberal world order and the distribution of power, prompts us to explore the feasibility of utilising existing relationships as a means of economic coercion. Therefore, the research methodology employed in this study integrates complexities inherent in the realm of international political economy of trade and international economics. The study focuses on the trade relations of the Visegrád Group, drawing on data from the OECD, the International Trade Centre, and Eurostat, with a specific emphasis on trade in value added and gross trade, while examining the repercussions of Chinese imports. The findings suggest a modest yet rising dependence of V4 economies on China, particularly evident in the machinery, electrical, and electronics industries, which could potentially disrupt supply chains within the region and with Germany, their primary trade partner. This underscores the necessity for devising strategies at the European Union level and within the Visegrád Group to accurately pinpoint vulnerabilities and diversify existing trade ties.
B. Michalski, The long shadow of the Great Wall. Trade dependencies of V4’s countries on China, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 67-85, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.4
  1. Aistleitner M., Puehringer S., The Trade (Policy) Discourse in Top Economics Journals, “New Political Economy” 2021, vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 748–764.
  2. Baldwin R., China is the world’s sole manufacturing superpower: A line sketch of the rise, https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/china-worlds-sole-manufacturing-superpower-line-sketch-rise [3.04.2024].
  3. Bauer M., The Impacts of EU Strategy Autonomy Policies – A Primer for Member States, ECIPE Policy Brief 2022, no. 9.
  4. Bauer M., du Roy O., Sharma V., A Forward Thinking to Open Strategic Autonomy. Navigating EU Trade Dependencies and Risk Mitigation, ECIPE Policy Brief 2023, no. 13.
  5. Baur A. et al., Rethinking Geoeconomics: Trade Policy Scenarios for Europe’s Economy, EconPol Policy Report, vol. 7, November 2023.
  6. Breslin S., Kauppila L., Sinkkonen E., Is “De-Risking” Possible? Responding to China Related Economic Insecurities, https://eh4s.eu/publication/is-de-risking-possible-responding-to-china-related-economic-insecurities [29.04.2024].
  7. Brown A., The accelerator state: Small firms join the fray of China’s techno-industrial drive, https://merics.org/en/report/accelerator-state-small-firms-join-fray-chinas-techno-industrial-drive [29.04.2024].
  8. BusinessEurope, Reboot Europe, April 2024.
  9. China Economic Database, Bruegel, https://www.bruegel.org/dataset/china-economic-database [8.09.2024].
  10. Cieślik E., Looking for the sectoral interdependence: evidence from the Visegrad countries and China, “Quality & Quantity” 2019, vol. 53, pp. 2041–2062.
  11. De Bièvre D., van Ommeren E., Multilateralism, Bilateralism and Institutional Choice: The Political Economy of Regime Complexes in International Trade Policy, “Global Policy” 2021, vol. 12(S4), pp. 14–24.
  12. Draghi M., The future of European competitiveness. Part A: A competitiveness strategy for Europe, September 2024.
  13. Dziewałtowski-Gintowt B., One Belt, One Road Between Three Seas: China’s Soft-Power Policy Towards ‘New’ EU Members, “Yearbook of the Institute of East-Central Europe” 2019, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 93–114.
  14. Elekdag S., Muir D., Wu Y., Trade Linkages, Balance Sheets, and Spillovers: The Germany-Central European Supply Chain, “Journal of Policy Modelling” 2015, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 374–387.
  15. European Commission, Strategic dependencies and capacities, SWD(2021) 352 final, Brussels.
  16. European Commission, On significant distortions in the economy of the People’s Republic of China for the purposes of trade defence investigations, SWD(2024) 91 final, Brussels.
  17. Eurostat, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/comext [3.04.2024].
  18. Evenett S. et al., The Return of Industrial Policy, WP/24/1, International Monetary Fund 2024.
  19. Farrell H., Newman A., Weaponized Interdependence. How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion, “International Security” 2019, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 42–79.
  20. Fjäder C.O., Interdependence as dependence. Economic security in the age of global interconnectedness, [in:] M. Wigell, S. Scholvin, M. Aaltola (eds.), Geo-economics and Power Politics in the 21st Century. The Revival of Economic Statecraft, London 2018, pp. 28–42.
  21. García-Herrero A. et al., EU–China Economic Relations to 2025. Building a Common Future, A Joint Report by Bruegel, Chatham House, China Center for International Economic Exchanges and the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2017.
  22. Ghiretti F., De-risking is not new to China, so why the surprise at the EU’s new policy?, https://merics.org/en/comment/de-risking-not-new-china-so-why-surprise-eus-new-policy [3.04.2024].
  23. ITC, https://www.trademap.org [8.09.2024].
  24. Lavery S., Rebuilding the fortress? Europe in a changing world economy, “Review of International Political Economy” 2023, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 330–353.
  25. Leonard M., The Age of Unpeace. How Connectivity Causes Conflict, London 2021.
  26. Letta E., Much more than a market – Speed, Security, Solidarity, April 2024.
  27. Li L., China’s Manufacturing Locus in 2025: With a Comparison of “Made-in-China 2025” and “Industry 4.0”, “Technological Forecasting and Social Change” 2018, vol. 135, pp. 66–74.
  28. Kristof N.D., The Rise of China, “Foreign Affairs” 1993, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 59–74.
  29. Malkin A., He T., The geoeconomics of global semiconductor value chains: extraterritoriality and the US-China technology rivalry, “Review of International Political Economy” 2023, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 674–699.
  30. Martin J., Mejean I., Parenti M., Relationship stickiness, international trade, and economic uncertainty, http://www.isabellemejean.com/MMP_2023.pdf [3.04.2024].
  31. Mazzucato M., The Entrepreneurial State: Debunking Public vs. Private Sector Myths, London 2013.
  32. Mejean I., Rousseaux P., Identifying European trade dependencies, http://www.isabellemejean.com/MejeanRousseaux_ITCEI.pdf [3.04.2024].
  33. Moller-Nielsen T., China’s ‘de-risking’ from West worsens EU industrial decline, experts say, https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/news/anna-chinas-de-risking-from-west-aggravating-eus-industrial-decline-experts-say [3.04.2024].
  34. Nissen C., Dreyer J., From optimist to sceptical liberalism: reforging European Union foreign policy amid crises, “International Affairs” 2024, vol. 100, no. 2, pp. 675–690.
  35. Nölke A., Vliegenthart A., Enlarging the Varieties of Capitalism. The Emergence of Dependent Market Economies in East Central Europe, “World Politics” 2009, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 670–702.
  36. OECD (2024), https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=TIVA_2021_C1 [3.04.2024].
  37. Poutala T., Sinkkonen E., Mattlin M., EU Strategic Autonomy and the Perceived Challenge of China: Can Critical Hubs Be De-weaponized?, “European Foreign Affairs Review” 2022, vol. 27, Special Issue, pp. 79–98.
  38. Rosén G., Meunier S., Economic Security and the Politics of Trade and Investment Policy in Europe, “Politics and Governance” 2023, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 122–128.
  39. Steiber A., Management in the Digital Age. Will China Surpass Silicon Valley?, Cham 2018.
  40. Sullivan J., Renewing American Economic Leadership, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2023/04/27/remarks-by-national-security-advisor-jake-sullivan-on-renewing-american-economic-leadership-at-the-brookings-institution [28.04.2023].
  41. Šebeňa M., Chan T., Šimalčík M., The China factor. Economic exposures and security implications in an interdependent world, Central European Institute of Asian Studies, March 2023.
  42. Vandermeeren F., Understanding EU-China economic exposure, Single Market Economics Briefs 2024, no. 4, European Commission.
  43. Vicard V., Wibaux P., EU Strategic Dependencies: A Long View, CEPII Policy Brief, no. 41, June 2023.
  44. Wolff G., Steinberg F., Dealing with Europe’s economic (in-)security, “Global Policy” 2024, vol. 15, pp. 183–192.
  45. Zenglein M.J., The world’s factory strikes back, Mercator Institute for China Studies 2024.
Article

Energy security policy of Poland and Hungary in the context of the Russian Federation war with Ukraine. A comparative analysis

Małgorzata Kamola-Cieślik | Nezir Akyesilmen
Views count: 49
The 2022 conflict between Russia and Ukraine highlighted the extent to which European Union member states rely on Russian energy resources. This article aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the energy security policies of Poland and Hungary during the energy crisis in Europe caused by the war in Ukraine between 2022 and 2023. To achieve the research purpose mentioned above, the following research questions were formulated: 1. What stance did Hungary and Poland take regarding the EU’s proposal for sanctions against the Russian Federation in the field of energy raw materials? 2. What actions did the governments of Hungary and Poland take to reduce their dependence on Russian energy raw materials? The following methods were used in the research: decision-making method, comparative method, analysis of the foundational research and statistical method. The analysis showed that the Polish government’s policy was focused on reducing its reliance on Russian energy imports and the need to find an alternative to eastern suppliers. The pro-Russian government of Hungary, on the other hand, was opposed to abandoning Russian energy resources and lacked a developed plan to shift away from them.
M. Kamola-Cieślik, N. Akyesilmen, Energy security policy of Poland and Hungary in the context of the Russian Federation war with Ukraine. A comparative analysis, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 87-104, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.5
  1. BOX, Węgry podpisują porozumienie gazowe z Rosją. Będą mogły zwiększyć zakupy, Businessinsider.com.pl, 11 April 2023, https://businessinsider.com.pl/gospodarka/wegry-podpisuja-porozumienie-gazowe-z-rosja-w-razie-potrzeby-bedziemy-mogli-kupic/s8zgnzj [25.03.2024].
  2. Eurocoal, Coal and lignite production and imports in Europe 2022, https://public.euracoal.eu/download/Public-Archive/Library/Charts-Maps/Coal-in-Europe/EURACOAL-Coal-in-Europe-2022-04.pdf [14.03.2024].
  3. European Commission, Natural gas supply Statistics Explained, May 2024, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/SEPDF/cache/10590.pdf [11.03.2024].
  4. Eurostat, Energy statistics – an overview, 31 May 2023, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Energy_statistics_-_an_overview [14.03.2024].
  5. Gizińska I., Rudnik F., Sadecki A., Szijjártó w Moskwie: podtrzymanie współpracy energetycznej z Rosją, 14 April 2023, https://www.osw.waw.pl/pl/publikacje/analizy/2023-04-14/szijjarto-w-moskwie-podtrzymanie-wspolpracy-energetycznej-z-rosja [25.03.2024].
  6. Héjj D., Paszkowski M., Konsekwentny wzrost uzależnienia Węgier od Rosji, “Komentarze IES” 2021, no. 455, https://ies.lublin.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/ies-komentarze-455-152-2021.pdf [14.03.2024].
  7. Kleinschmidt P., Maćkowiak-Pandera J., Ponad billion złotych na import surowców energetycznych do Polski, Forum Energii, 18 February 2020, https://www.forum-energii.eu/ponad-bilion-zlotych-na-import-surowcow-energetycznych-do-polski [11.03.2024].
  8. Ministerstwo Aktywów Państwowych, Raport podsumowujący interwencyjny import i dystrybucję węgla kamiennego w sezonie grzewczym 2022/2023, Warsaw, April 2023, https://www.gov.pl/web/aktywa-panstwowe/wicepremier-jacek-sasin-zapewnilismy-polakom-wegiel-na-zime-dotrzymalismy-slowa [12.02.2024].
  9. Ministry of Innovation and Technology, National Energy and Climate Plan, 1 January 2021, https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/hun212429.pdf [21.03.2024].
  10. PM Orbán: “We have managed to defeat the Commission’s proposal to ban the use of oil from Russia in Hungary”, Facebook, 31 May 2022, https://www.facebook.com/AboutHungary/videos/pm-orb%C3%A1n-we-have-managed-to-defeat-the-commissions-proposal-to-ban-the-use-of-oi/1184755592292259/ [20.02.2024].
  11. Polska wypowiedziała porozumienie gazowe ws. Jamału, 23 May 2022, https://www.gov.pl/web/klimat/polska-wypowiedziala-porozumienie-gazowe-ws-jamalu [14.03.2024].
  12. Polski Instytut Ekonomiczny, Unia Europejska niezależna od Rosji? Alternatywne źródła dostaw surowców energetycznych, Warsaw, March 2022, https://pie.net.pl/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/PIE-Raport_UE-niezalezna-od-Rosji-1.pdf, s. 19 [14.03.2024].
  13. Rada Unii Europejskiej, UE przyjmuje piąty pakiet sankcji wobec Rosji w związku z jej agresją wojskową na Ukrainę, 8 April 2022, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/pl/press/press-releases/2022/04/08/eu-adopts-fifth-round-of-sanctions-against-russia-over-its-military-aggression-against-ukraine/ [24.03.2024].
  14. Speech by President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy at a meeting of the European Council, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy Official website, 25 March 2022, https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/promova-prezidenta-ukrayini-volodimira-zelenskogo-na-zasidan-73809 [24.03.2024].
  15. Spike J., Hungary’s Orban wins exemption in EU Russian oil embargo, APNew.com, 31 March 2022, https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-viktor-orban-hungary-989184ef46804f2f7ac3eaa411fa7dbd [20.02.2024].
  16. Szőke E., Hungary concludes three energy agreements with Russia, Ceenergynews.com, 14.04.2023, https://ceenergynews.com/oil-gas/hungary-concludes-three-energy-agreements-with-russia/ [24.03.2024].
  17. TL, Europejski rynek ropy naftowej. Skąd i za ile UE importuje surowiec?, Forsal.pl, 05.04.2023, https://forsal.pl/biznes/energetyka/artykuly/8691193,europejski-rynek-ropy-naftowej-skad-i-za-ile-ue-importuje-surowiec.html [14.03.2024].
  18. UNdata A world of information, Conventional crude oil, http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=EDATA&f=cmID%3ACR [14.03.2024].
Article

Russia’s battle for remembrance. Memory laws in Vladimir Putin’s Russia exemplified by the Russo-Ukrainian war

Dagmara Moskwa
Views count: 46
This paper focuses on memory laws in V. Putin’s Russia, emphasising the Russo-Ukrainian war (2014 – present). The aim was to interpret legal acts regulating the interpretation of the war in the context of V. Putin’s politics of history. Additionally, parallels between legal acts regulating the interpretation of World War II and the Russo-Ukrainian war were highlighted. The primary research method is qualitative content analysis (legal acts, exit polls, etc.), supplemented by comparative analysis. I assume that V. Putin’s Russia is a memory authoritarian regime that recreates the Soviet memory regime surrounding World War II and uses memory on a unique global scale.
D. Moskwa, Russia’s battle for remembrance. Memory laws in Vladimir Putin’s Russia exemplified by the Russo-Ukrainian war, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 105-121, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.6
  1. Address by President of Russia Vladimir Putin at the Victory Parade on Red Square, https://cameroun.mid.ru/en/press-centre/news/address_by_president_of_russia_vladimir_putin_at_the_victory_parade_on_red_square/ [1.07.2024].
  2. Chawryło K., The Kremlin’s crackdown on Western social networks, https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/analyses/2022-03-15/kremlins-crackdown-western-social-networks [4.07.2024].
  3. Escape from War: New data puts the number of Russians who have left at more than 800,000 people, https://re-russia.net/en/review/347/ [1.07.2024].
  4. Federal’nyj zakon O vnesenii izmenenij v stat’i 13.15 i 20.3.3 Kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativnyh pravonarushenijah ot 18.03.2023 N 57-FZ (poslednjaja redakcija), https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_442342/ [11.07.2024].
  5. Federal’nyj zakon O vnesenii izmenenij v Ugolovnyj kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 18.03.2023 N 58-FZ (poslednjaja redakcija), https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_442341/ [11.07.2024].
  6. Federal’nyj zakon ot 4 marta 2022 g. N 31-FZ O vnesenii izmenenij v Kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativnyh pravonarushenijah (s izmenenijami i dopolnenijami)], https://base.garant.ru/403609304/ [1.07.2024].
  7. Federal’nyj zakon ot 4 marta 2022 g. N 32-FZ O vnesenii izmenenij v Ugolovnyj kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii i stat’i 31 i 151 Ugolovno-processual’nogo kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii https://base.garant.ru/403609306/ [1.07.2024].
  8. Federal’nyj zakon O vnesenii izmenenij v Kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativnyh pravonarushenijah ot 16.04.2022 N 103-FZ (poslednjaja redakcija), https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_414827/ [3.07.2024].
  9. Federal’nyj zakon ot 5 maja 2014 g. N 128-FZ O vnesenii izmenenij v otdel’nye zakonodatel’nye akty Rossijskoj Federacii, https://base.garant.ru/70648878/ [1.07.2024].
  10. Federal’nyj zakon O vnesenii izmenenij v stat’ju 6 Federal’nogo zakona, Ob uvekovechenii Pobedy sovetskogo naroda v Velikoj Otechestvennoj vojne 1941–1945 godov, stat’ju 20.3 Kodeksa Rossijskoj Federacii ob administrativnyh pravonarushenijah ot 04.11.2014 N 332-fz (poslednjaja redakcija), https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_170486/ [1.07.2024].
  11. Federal’nyj zakon O dnjah voinskoj slavy i pamjatnyh datah Rossii ot 13.03.1995 N 32-FZ (poslednjaja redakcija)], https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_5978/ [3.07.2024].
  12. How the Russian Government Silences Wartime Dissent, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/12/29/world/europe/russia-ukraine-war-censorship.html [3.07.2024].
  13. How the Russian Media Spread False Claims About Ukrainian Nazis, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/07/02/world/europe/ukraine-nazis-russia-media.html [12.07.2024].
  14. Jemigracionnye nastroenija i otnoshenie k uehavshim: mart 2024 goda, https://www.levada.ru/2024/04/11/emigratsionnye-nastroeniya-i-otnoshenie-k-uehavshim-mart-2024-goda/ [1.07.2024].
  15. Konflikt s Ukrainoj: ocenki Nojabrja 2023 goda, https://www.levada.ru/2023/12/08/konflikt-s-ukrainoj-otsenki-noyabrya-2023-goda/ [5.07.2024].
  16. Koposov N., Memory Laws, Memory Wars: The Politics of the Past in Europe and Russia, Cambridge 2017.
  17. Koposov N., Pamjat’ strogogo rezhima. Istorija i politika v Rossii, Моscow 2011.
  18. Koposow N., Ustawy memorialne w Rosji i na Ukrainie: krzyżujące się historie, “Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 2015, no. 13, vol. 2.
  19. Kubik J., Bernhard M., A theory of the politics of memory, [in:] M. Bernhard, J. Kubik (eds.), Twenty years after communism. The politics of memory and commemoration, Oxford–New York 2014.
  20. Langenbacher E., Changing Memory Regimes in Contemporary Germany?, “German Politics and Society” 2003, vol. 21, no. 2.
  21. Langenbacher E., Twenty-First Century Memory Regimes in Germany and Poland: An Analysis of Elite Discourses and Public Opinion, “German Politics and Society” 2008, vol. 26, no. 4.
  22. Laskowska K., Rehabilitation of nazism as a crime in the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, “Ius Novum” 2023, no. 1, vol. 17.
  23. Legucka A., Russia’s Wartime Censorship and Propaganda, https://pism.pl/publications/russias-wartime-censorship-and-propaganda [4.07.2024].
  24. Moskwa D., “The Community is Everything, The Individual is Nothing”. The Second World War in Russian History Education, “Journal of Educational Media, Memory, and Society” 2021, no. 13(1).
  25. Moskwa D., MATKA OJCZYZNA WZYWA! Wielka wojna ojczyźniana w edukacji i polityce historycznej putinowskiej Rosji, Warsaw 2020.
  26. MVD ob”javilo v rozysk pisatelja Mihaila Zygarja, https://zona.media/news/2024/04/09/zygar [4.07.2024].
  27. Number of civilian casualties in Ukraine during Russia’s invasion verified by OHCHR from February 24, 2022 to February 15, 2024, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1293492/ukraine-war-casualties/ [8.07.2024].
  28. Obuhov A., Rossijskij sud zapretil rasskazyvat’ o sotrudnichestve sssr i nacistskoj Germanii, “Moskovskij komsomolec”, https://www.mk.ru/social/2016/07/01/rossiyskiy-sud-zapretil-rasskazyvat-o-sotrudnichestve-sssr-i-nacistskoy-germanii.html [2.07.2024].
  29. Odobrenie institutov, rejtingi partij i politikov, https://www.levada.ru/2022/03/30/odobrenie-institutov-rejtingi-partij-i-politikov/ [5.07.2024].
  30. Persecution of the anti-war movement report January 2024, https://en.ovdinfo.org/persecution-anti-war-movement-report-january-2024?_gl=1*96ajsb*_ga*NTA4ODg0NDQzLjE3MTYwOTk0OTA.*_ga_J7DH9NKJ0R*MTcxNjM4NzY3MS4zLjEuMTcxNjM4Nzc4Ni42MC4wLjA.#1 [1.07.2024].
  31. Projekt, https://www.proekt.media/ [8.07.2024].
  32. Protiv uvolennogo iz SPbGU istorika vozbudili delo o reabilitacii nacizma, https://ovd.info/express-news/2023/06/27/protiv-uvolennogo-iz-spbgu-istorika-vozbudili-delo-o-reabilitacii-nacizma [2.07.2024].
  33. Putin’s approval rating, https://www.levada.ru/en/ [4.07.2024].
  34. Putin has surpassed Khrushchev and Brezhnev in terms of the scale of repressions – over the past six years alone, he has persecuted at least 116 thousand people, https://www.proekt.media/en/article-en/repressions-in-russia/ [7.08.2024].
  35. Russia: Anti-terrorism legislation misused to punish activist Boris Kagarlitsky, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/02/russia-anti-terrorism-legislation-misused-to-punish-activist-boris-kagarlitsky/ [4.07.2024].
  36. Russia bans Facebook and Instagram under ‘extremism’ law, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/21/russia-bans-facebook-and-instagram-under-extremism-law [4.07.2024].
  37. Russia introduces liability for discrediting the Russian Armed Forces, https://pacsto.org/events/v-rossii-vvoditsya-otvetstvennost-za-diskreditatsiyu-vooruzhennyh [1.07.2024].
  38. Russia opens criminal case against Mikhail Zygar for “fake news” on Bucha, https://ipi.media/alerts/russia-opens-criminal-case-against-mikhail-zygar-for-fake-news-on-bucha/ [4.07.2024].
  39. Russia outlaws spreading ‘fake news’ about the Russian military with fines and prison, https://www.poynter.org/business-work/2022/russia-outlaws-spreading-fake-news-about-the-russian-military-with-fines-and-prison/ [4.07.2024].
  40. Stråth B., Poverty, Neutrality and Welfare: Three Key Concepts in the Modern Foundation Myth of Sweden, [in:] B. Stråth (ed.), Myth and Memory in the Construction of Community, Brussels 2000.
  41. Sud v Pskove otkazalsja rassmatrivat’ protokol o «diskreditacii» armii, sostavlennyj na pisatelja Mihaila Zygarja, https://zona.media/news/2024/03/28/zygar [4.07.2024].
  42. The Price of Defiance in Russia. Human Rights Veteran Faces New Trial for Criticism of Russia’s
  43. War Against Ukraine, https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/02/05/price-defiance-russia [4.07.2024].
  44. Ugolovnyj kodeks Rossijskoj Federacii ot 13.06.1996 N 63-FZ (red. ot 12.06.2024) (s izm. i dop., vstup. v silu s 06.07.2024), https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_LAW_10699/1aa9268e7d3bd57bcbd46a3016641c5af64b9c87/ [11.07.2024].
  45. Ukraine war: Russian human rights campaigner Oleg Orlov sentenced to jail, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68413372 [4.07.2024].
  46. Ukraine war: Zelensky says 31,000 troops killed since Russia’s full-scale invasion, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68397525 [8.07.2024].
  47. Wierzbicki A., Russkij mir jako projekt restauracyjny imperium, [in:] S. Bieleń, A. Skrzypek (eds.), Rozważania imperiologiczne, Warsaw 2015.
  48. Weaponizing Russia’s Memory Law, https://verfassungsblog.de/weaponizing-russias-memory-law/ [2.07.2024].
Article

Nuclear energy in the countries of the Three Seas Initiative under the new security architecture and climate policy

Maciej Skuza
Views count: 32
The article presents an analysis of the approach to nuclear energy and prospects for development in the countries that are members of the Three Seas Initiative. The author presents an analysis of the demographic and economic potential of the region in the context of a convergent history, conditioning the current infrastructural deficiencies compared to Western and Northern Europe. The paper employs a comparative analysis of the energy policies of the Initiative countries, concluding that the solution to the decarbonisation of the region is the development of nuclear energy potential and cooperation – due to its emission-free nature and guarantee of stable electricity production, together with the development of renewable energy sources. Such solutions guarantee significant progress towards decarbonisation and the achievement of international and EU climate targets, while ensuring energy security. The energy policy analysis is contextualised in the conditions of the new security architecture in Europe related to Russia’s war in Ukraine.
M. Skuza, Nuclear energy in the countries of the Three Seas Initiative under the new security architecture and climate policy, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 123-140, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.7
  1. Desuin H., Le multi-multilatéralisme en Europe centrale: théâtre des vieilles rivalités nationales, “La Revue Politique et Parlementaire” 2018, no. 1087–1088.
  2. Dottori G., Il Trimarium emargina l’Italia, “Limes. Rivista Italiana di Geopolitica” 2017, no. 12.
  3. Gniazdowski M., Projekty jądrowe w Europie Środkowej i Południowo-wschodniej. Stan
    i perspektywy    , Warsaw 2015.
  4. Januszewska A., Reakcja Unii Europejskiej na katastrofę w elektrowni jądrowej w Fukushimie, [in:] Polityka Unii Europejskiej wobec partnerów azjatyckich, Łódź 2019.
  5. Kobierski Ł., Błaszczak J., Trójmorze z perspektywy państw członkowskich, Warsaw 2021.
  6. Kowal P., Orzelska-Stączek A., Inicjatywa Trójmorza: geneza, cele i funkcjonowanie, Warsaw 2019.
  7. Kurecic P., Can the Three Seas bring a new balance to European politics?, “New Eastern Europe Postmodern Geopolitics. The consequences of the emerging multipolar world” 2019, no. 2(36).
  8. Lang K.O., Die Drei-Meere-Initiative: wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit in geostrategischem Kontext, “SWP-Aktuell” 2021, no. 16.
  9. Lewkowicz Ł., Szwed-Walczak A., (Nie)potrzebny format współpracy regionalnej? Inicjatywa Trójmorza w dyskursie publicznym państw Grupy Wyszehradzkiej”, Prace Instytutu Europy Środkowej, no. 11, Lublin 2022.
  10. Orzelska-Stączek A., Inicjatywa Trójmorza w świetle teorii realizmu. Polityczne aspekty nowej formy współpracy dwunastu państw, „Sprawy Międzynarodowe” 2019, no. 1.
  11. Orzelska-Stączek A., Kowal P., Inicjatywa Trójmorza: geneza, cele i funkcjonowanie, Warsaw 2019.
  12. Orzelska-Stączek A., Ukielski P., Inicjatywa Trójmorza z perspektywy jej uczestników, Warsaw 2020.
  13. Siddi M., EU-Russia Energy Relations, [in:] M. Knodt, J. Kemmerzell (eds.), Handbook of Energy Governance in Europe, Cham 2022.
  14. Skalamera M., The Geopolitics of Energy after the Invasion of Ukraine, “The Washington Quarterly” 2023, no. 46(1).
  15. Wiech J., Nowe niemieckie imperium, Warsaw 2019.
  16. Wilczek J., Energia dla Trójmorza. Zmiany w miksie energetycznym Państw Inicjatywy Trójmorza ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem produkcji energii elektrycznej (1990–2019), “Analizy Międzynarodowe” 2022, no. 1(3).
  17. Wilczek J., Rudowski A., Fundusz Trójmorza. W stronę instytucjonalizacji Inicjatywy?, [in:] 3 Seas Initiative Insight, Warsaw 2021.
  18. Zenderowski R., Skobejko K., Chorwacja wobec Inicjatywy Trójmorza, “Studia Politologiczne” 2021, 59.
Article

How can energy resilience be strengthened in Central and Eastern European states?

Urszula Kurczewska
Views count: 39
The energy crisis resulting from Russia’s military aggression in Ukraine in 2022 is seen by the European Union as an opportunity to accelerate the energy transition and strengthen energy resilience. Energy resilience is particularly important for Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, which are highly dependent on imports of energy resources and which possess significant potential for the development of energy based on renewable sources. The article presents an analysis of the energy resilience of CEE countries in the context of the challenges related to the energy crisis, Russia’s war in Ukraine, and the EU’s ambitious climate goals. The aim of the analysis is to identify the factors that contribute to strengthening or weakening the energy resilience of these countries. The results of the study confirm the thesis that the process of strengthening the energy resilience of CEE countries is progressing, but too slowly and unevenly. The most serious problems for these countries are the increase in the share of energy from renewable sources, the modernisation and expansion of the old electricity grid, the lack of decentralisation of the energy system, and insufficient cross-border cooperation in the field of energy exchange. The findings can help to understand the political, technological and economic challenges faced by CEE countries in their energy systems.
U. Kurczewska, How can energy resilience be strengthened in Central and Eastern European states?, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 141-157, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.8
  1. Baldursson F.M., Banet C., Chyong Ch., Building Resilience in Europe’s Energy System, CERRE, Report, June 2023.
  2. CANEurope, Future-Proofing Central Eastern European Grids for Tomorrow’s Energy System, February 2024, https://caneurope.org/central-eastern-europe-grids/.
  3. CEE, Energy Outlook. Where do national commitments lead?, Report, Orlen, Warsaw, January 2024, https://future.orlen.pl/content/dam/internet/future-orlen/pl/en/ORLEN_outlook_EN.pdf.
  4. Coaffee J., Futureproof: How to Build Resilience in an Uncertain World, Yale University Press, 2019.
  5. Cremona E., Rosslowe C., Putting the mission in transmission: Grids for Europe’s energy transition: Some of Europe’s grid development plans could fall short of what’s needed for wind and solar roll out, https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/putting-the-mission-in-transmission-grids-for-europes-energy-transition/#supporting-material.
  6. EEA, Share of energy consumption from renewable sources in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/share-of-energy-consumption-from.
  7. Elżbieciak T., Mamy już 5 mln inteligentnych liczników, https://wysokienapiecie.pl/96908-mamy-juz-5-mln-inteligentnych-licznikow/.
  8. EMBER, 2023: A milestone year for renewable energy in Europe – Unveiling Ember’s Electricity Review, https://www.solarpowereurope.org/news/2023-a-milestone-year-for-renewable-energy-in-europe-unveiling-ember-s-electricity-review.
  9. EMBER, European Union. The EU accelerates electricity transition in the wake of crisis, https://ember-climate.org/countries-and-regions/regions/european-union/.
  10. EMBER, In it together: the road to a cleaner, cheaper CEE power system, https://ember-climate.org/insights/research/in-it-together-cee-power-system/#supporting-material.
  11. EU Energy Outlook to 2060: power prices and revenues predicted for wind, solar, gas, hydrogen + more, https://energypost.eu/eu-energy-outlook-to-2060-power-prices-and-revenues-predicted-for-wind-solar-gas-hydrogen-more/.
  12. European Commission, Communication: REPowerEU Plan, COM(2022) 230 final, Brussels, 18 May 2022, https://energy.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-05/COM_2022_230_1_EN_ACT_part1_v5.pdf.
  13. European Commission, Communication: Securing our future Europe’s 2040 climate target and path to climate neutrality by 2050 building a sustainable, just and prosperous society, COM(2024) 63 final, Strasbourg, 6 February 2024.
  14. European Commission, In focus: EU energy security and gas supplies, https://energy.ec.europa.eu/news/focus-eu-energy-security-and-gas-supplies-2024-02-15_en.
  15. Eurostat, EU trade with Russia – latest developments, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=EU_trade_with_Russia_-_latest_developments#Latest_developments.
  16. IEA, Energy system of Europe, https://www.iea.org/regions/europe and https://ember-climate.org/countries-and-regions/regions/european-union/.
  17. IEA, Renewables, https://www.iea.org/energy-system/renewables.
  18. IEA, Renewables 2023. Analysis and forecasts to 2028, https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2023.
  19. Jasiunas J., Lund P., Mikkola J., Energy system resilience – A review, “Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews” 2021, vol. 150.
  20. Joshi P., Gokhale-Welch C., Fundamentals of Energy Security and Resilience, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, November 2022, https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/84499.pdf.
  21. Misiągiewicz J., Energy security as an area of international security, “Stosunki Międzynarodowe – International Relations” 2022, vol. 58.
  22. Number of operational, shutdown, and planned nuclear reactors in European countries, https://www.statista.com/statistics/792589/operational-nuclear-reactors-european-union-eu-28/.
  23. Pająk P., Słaby początek 2024 r. na rynku prosumenckim, https://www.gramwzielone.pl/energia-sloneczna/20191451/slaby-poczatek-2024-r-na-rynku-prosumenckim.
  24. PTPIREE, Mikroinstalacje w Polsce, http://www.ptpiree.pl/energetyka-w-polsce/energetyka-w-liczbach/mikroinstalacje-w-polsce.
  25. Rinaldi E., How to strengthen energy resilience in an uncertain world, Eurelectric, August 2023, https://www.eurelectric.org/in-detail/energy-resilience.
Article

Albania’s counter-terrorism policy in the face of evolving terrorist threats

Luiza Wojnicz
Views count: 33
This topic explores the dynamic landscape of terrorist threats in Albania and delves into the country’s counter-terrorism policies. Analysing the evolving nature of these threats, the discussion will focus on Albania’s strategic initiatives, cooperation, and existing institutions. By analysing the multifaceted dimensions of Albania’s counter-terrorism efforts, this study aims to shed light on the country’s commitment to protecting its citizens and contributing to global security. The aim of the article is to analyse the terrorist threat in Albania and the anti-terrorist policy pursued. Two research methods were used in the article, i.e. the institutional-legal method and the content analysis method. Both methods allowed the analysis of selected normative acts and the selection of institutions dedicated to the fight against terrorism. With the use of a selected content analysis relating to the developing situation in Albania in recent years, the author indicates the reasons for the occurrence of possible terrorist threats and evaluates whether Albania is a country with a low terrorist threat.
L. Wojnicz, Albania’s counter-terrorism policy in the face of evolving terrorist threats, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 159-174, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.9
  1. Albania, Extremism and Terrorism, https://www.counterextremism.com/countries/albania-extremism-and-terrorism/report [2.08.2023].
  2. Albanian law No. 9258 on freezing the assets of persons designated by the UN as terrorists or terrorist financiers, 15 July 2004.
  3. Albanian National Strategy Countering Violent Extremism. Adopted by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Albania (Decision no. 930) on 18 November 2015 and published in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Albania (203/2015), https://cve.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/strategjia-2018-me-ndryshime.pdf [26.08.2023].
  4. Assessment of risks on national security/ the capacity of state and society to react: Violent Extremism and Religious Radicalization in Albania, https://www.aiis-albania.org/sites/default/files/Violent%20Extremism%20and%20%20Religious%20Radicalization%20in%20Albania.pdf [25.08.2023].
  5. Balliu A., Addressing Terrorism in The XXI Century Case of Albania, “European Scientific Journal” 2020, no. 16(11).
  6. Committee of Experts on Terrorism (Codexter), Profiles on Counter-Terrorist Capacity, November 2014, https://rm.coe.int/profiles-2014-albania-en/168064102e [26.08.2023].
  7. Council Common Position of 27 December 2001 on combating terrorism, OJ L 344 of 28 December 2001.
  8. Criminal Code of the Republic of Albania (1995, as amended 2015) (excerpts related to Counter-Terrorism and Violent Extremism) (English), https://legislationline.org/taxonomy/term/23490 [22.08.2023].
  9. Drejtoria e Politikave te Sigurise, REPORT: Albania’s Anti-Terrorism Steps, https://wb-iisg.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/FULL-REPORT-Albania-Anti-Terrorism-Steps.pdf [20.09.2023].
  10. Information Exchange on the OSCE, Code of Conduct on Politico-Military Aspects of Security, Republic of Albania 2021, https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/2/8/484742.pdf [10.09.2023].
  11. Koleka B., Albanian court jails nine for recruiting fighters for Syria, Reuters, May 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-albania-idUSKCN0XU2AB [20.08.2023].
  12. Law No. 9917 dated 19.05.2008, On the prevention of money laundering and financing terrorism, “Official Gazette”, 10 June 2008, no. 83.
  13. Likmeta B., Albanian Jihadists Recruit Fighters for Syria on Facebook, Balkan Insight, 15 January 2014, https://balkaninsight.com/2014/01/15/albanian-jihadist-use-internet-to-recruit-fighters/ [22.08.2023].
  14. Marusic S.J. et al., Balkan Jihadi Warriors Remain Safe on the Net, Balkan Insight, 2 February 2017, https://balkaninsight.com/2017/02/02/balkan-jihadi-warriors-remain-safe-on-the-netj-01-27-2017/ [22.08.2023].
  15. Mejdini F., Albania to Host NATO Centre on Foreign Fighters, Balkan Insight, June 2016, https://balkaninsight.com/2016/06/23/albania-will-host-nato-center-on-foreign-terrorist-fighters-06-23-2016/ [22.08.2023].
  16. New RENEA special police force headquarters inaugurated, 20 January 2020, https://www.kryeministria.al/en/newsroom/nje-repart-i-ri-per-forcat-speciale-renea/ [4.01.2023].
  17. Public Report 2021, https://www.shish.gov.al/files/Public%20Report%202021%20English.pdf [20.10.2023].
  18. Religious radicalism and violent extremism in Albania, IDM, Tirana 2015, https://idmalbania.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Religious-Radicalism-Albania-web-final.pdf [23.08.2023].
  19. Religious tolerance in Albania, Report 2018, https://idmalbania.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Religious-tolerance-in-albania-1.pdf [20.08.2023].
  20. Third Round Detailed Assessment Report on Albania Anti-Money Laundering and Combating The Financing of Terrorism, Strasbourg, 11 July 2006, https://rm.coe.int/european-comitee-on-crime-problems-cdpc-comitee-of-experts-on-the-eval/1680715ab2 [22.08.2023].
  21. Vickers M., Pettifer J., Albania: From Anarchy to a Balkan Identity, New York 1997.
  22. Vrugtman L., The EU and other stakeholders’ prevention strategies towards VE in Albania, The Institute for Democracy and Mediation, Policy Paper, 12 January 2021, https://www.prevex-balkan-mena.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Prevex-Policy-Paper-PCVE-in-Albania-final-for-web-2.pdf [24.08.2023].
  23. Układ o Stabilizacji i Stowarzyszeniu między Wspólnotami Europejskimi i ich państwami członkowskimi, z jednej strony, a Republiką Albanii, z drugiej strony. Luksemburg, Dz.U.2010.1.1., 12.06.2006.
  24. Woehrel S., Islamic Terrorism and the Balkans, CRS Report for Congress, 26 July 2005.
  25. 12 Charged with Terrorism Offences in 2020, Albanian Daily News, 2 May 2021, https://albaniandailynews.com/news/prosecution-charged-12-people-with-terrorism-offenses-in-2020-1 [22.08.2023].
Article

Brazylia wobec agresji Federacji Rosyjskiej na Ukrainę

Piotr Bajor
Views count: 40
The article presents research results regarding Brazils policy and position towards the annexation of Crimea, the conflict in the eastern regions of Ukraine, and the full-scale aggression in 2022. The legal basis of Brazil’s relations with the Russian Federation is discussed as well as their development in recent years, including multilateral cooperation within BRICS. The article also presents an analysis of the conditions and premises of Brazil’s policy towards the war in Ukraine, which has a cautious, inconsistent, and ambivalent position in this respect. During the research, the historical method, content analysis method, comparative method, and systemic method were used.
P. Bajor, Brazylia wobec agresji Federacji Rosyjskiej na Ukrainę, „Rocznik Instytutu Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej” 22 (2024), z. 1, s. 175-185, DOI: https://doi.org/10.36874/RIESW.2024.1.10

1. Coning C. de, BRICS and coexistence, [in:] idem, T. Mandrup, L. Odgaard (eds.),The BRICS and Coexistence. An alternative vision of world order, New York 2015.
2. Consultations and research interviews with scientists during a research internship at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, February 2023.
3. Conti B. de, Oliveira É. de Almeida, Cateia J.V., Brazil and BRICS, [in:] R. Kumar et al. (eds.), Locating BRICS in the Global Order. Perspectives from the Global South, pp. 141–149.
4. Costa L.G., Scalon C., Income Inequality and Social Stratification in Brazil: Key Determining Factors and Changes in the First Decade of the 21st Century, [in:] L.I. Peilin et al. (eds.), Handbook on Social Stratification in the BRIC Countries, pp. 421–437.
5. Dogowor o partnierskich otnoszenijach mieżdu Rossijskoj Fiedieracyjej i Fiedieratiwnoj Riespublikoj Brazilijej. Ratificyrowan Fiedieralnym zakonom RF ot 18 ijunia 2001 goda N 79-FZ, https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901812576 [20.09.2023].
6. Pieriegowory s Priezidientom Brazilii Żairom Bołsonaro, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67778 [20.09.2023].
7. Sowmiestnoje zajawlenije Priezidienta Rossijskoj Fiedieracyi W.W. Putina i Priezidienta Brazilii Ż.Bołsonaro, http://kremlin.ru/supplement/5774 [20.09.2023].
8. Stuenkel O., Why Brazil has not criticised Russia over Crimea, Policy Brief, May 2014, NOREF.
9. XV BRICS Summit Johannesburg II Declaration BRICS and Africa: Partnership for Mutually Accelerated Growth, Sustainable Development and Inclusive Multilateralism, Sandton, Gauteng, South Africa, 23 August 2023, https://brics2023.gov.za/2023/07/05/summit-declarations/ [20.09.2023].
10. Zajawlenija dla priessy po itogam rossijsko-brazilskich pieriegoworow, http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/67789 [20.09.2023].